张傲,岑山,李晓宇
综 述
N-腺苷甲基化修饰及其对LINE-1的调控机制
张傲,岑山,李晓宇
中国医学科学院&北京协和医学院,医药生物技术研究所免疫生物学室,北京 100050
长散布元件-1 (long interspersed elements-1,LINE-1)是现今在人类基因组中唯一具有自主转座能力的转座子,其转座会引起细胞基因组结构和功能的改变,是导致多种严重疾病的重要因素。在转座过程中,LINE-1 mRNA是转座中间体的核心,宿主细胞对其进行相关修饰直接影响转座。N-腺苷甲基化修饰(m6A)是真核细胞RNA上最丰富且动态可逆的表观遗传修饰。目前发现m6A修饰也存在于LINE-1 mRNA上,参与LINE-1整个生命周期的调控,影响其转座和基因组中LINE-1相邻基因的表达,进而影响基因组稳定性、细胞自我更新与分化潜能,在人类发育和疾病中具有重要作用。本文介绍了LINE-1 m6A修饰的位置、功能以及相关机制,并总结了LINE-1的m6A修饰对其转座调控的研究进展,以期为相关疾病发生发展的机制研究和治疗提供新的思路。
m6A修饰;
逆转录转座子;
LINE-1;
基因组;
基因组稳定性
长散布元件(long interspersed elements,LINE-1)是一种非长末端重复序列(non-long terminal repeats,non-LTR)逆转录转座子。据统计大约45%的人类基因组衍生自转座子(transposable elements,TEs),其中LINE-1约占人基因组的17%,是目前人类基因组中唯一证实具有自主转座活性的转座子[1,2]。LINE-1以RNA为媒介进行转座,是一种RNA转座子[3],全长约6 kb,其编码的两个蛋白ORF1蛋白(ORF1p)和ORF2蛋白(ORF2p),在细胞质中与LINE-1 mRNA形成核糖核蛋白复合物(ribonucleoprotein complexes,RNPs),后利用ORF2p核酸内切酶及逆转录酶活性,以LINE-1 mRNA为模板逆转录产生cDNA,形成RNA:DNA杂交体,该过程被称为“靶点引导逆转录过程”(target-site primed reverse transcription,TPRT)[4,5],是LINE-1复制的关键步骤。基因组中大多数LINE-1 5′ UTR区缺失或倒置,丧失转座活性,仅80~100个LINE-1拷贝结构完整,是具有逆转座活性的LINE-1 (retrotransposition-competent LINE-1s,RC-L1s)。从物种进化上来看,活跃的逆转录转座子在生物进化、物种形成和胚胎发育、记忆形成等方面发挥生理学作用[6,7],但对个体而言,转座的发生会对宿主细胞基因组的结构和功能产生严重影响,LINE-1在基因组DNA中的插入、缺失和重组,会改变宿主基因的表达,导致衰老、癌症、基因疾病、代谢性疾病、神经退行性疾病和自身免疫性疾病等多种疾病的发生[8~11]。此外,LINE-1还可以协助不具有自主转座能力的非LTR转座子短散布元件(short interspersed elements,SINEs) Alu和加工后的假基因进行转座,进而诱发疾病[12]。因此宿主对正常体细胞中LINE-1的表达与转座活性是严格控制的,而且这种调控是多层次、多方面的,包括表观遗传修饰[13,14]、非编码小RNA[15,16]以及多种宿主限制因子[17~19]等调控。
除研究较多的DNA、组蛋白甲基化外,N-甲基化腺嘌呤(N-methylated adenine,m6A)陆续在细菌DNA、细菌和酵母的RNA和哺乳动物mRNA中被发现,m6A甲基化对RNA代谢和功能调控具有多样性[20~23]。随着对LINE-1转座调控机制的深入研究,研究者们发现在LINE-1上存在的m6A修饰对其转座调控也发挥着重要的作用。本文主要介绍m6A修饰的生物学功能,以及该修饰对LINE-1各阶段的调控机制和LINE-1周围染色质状态、基因表达的影响,以期对m6A修饰的生物学功能研究扩展及宿主对LINE-1调控网络的探究提供新的思路。
m6A一般发生在RNA中腺苷酸的N位置上,是通过特定的甲基转移酶进行的甲基化修饰(图1),在mRNA和其他类型核内RNA,如转运RNA (transfer RNA,tRNA)、核糖体RNA(ribosomal RNA,rRNA)、小核RNA(small nuclear RNA,snRNA)均有分布。m6A甲基化具有RRACH共同识别序列(其中R表示A或G,H表示A、C或U),受多种调控因子调控,通过“编码器”m6A甲基转移酶装配,并可被“读码器”m6A结合蛋白识别或被“消码器”去甲基化酶移除[24,25]。m6A主要在终止密码子和3′非翻译区(3′UTR)附近富集,在内含子和5′非翻译区(5′UTR)也有低丰度的m6A。
m6A甲基化对RNA代谢过程的多个环节均具有重要的影响,包括RNA剪接[26,27]、核输出[28]、降解[29,30]和翻译[31,32]。在RNA剪接过程中,m6A被相应蛋白识别并结合,通过招募YTHDC1蛋白、抑制剪接因子或改变RNA局部构象来调节mRNA前体(pre-mRNA)选择性剪接[26,27]。在核输出过程中,m6A被YTHDC1蛋白识别,促进RNA与核输出组分的相互作用,调控mRNA的亚细胞定位[28]。m6A还可以被YTHDF2蛋白识别进而降解m6A修饰的靶转录本[29,30]。此外,m6A对mRNA转录后调控也具有一定的作用,mRNA的翻译方式与m6A在转录本的位置有关。正常生理条件下,m6A修饰主要位于RNA 的3′UTR区,被YTHDF1蛋白或YTHDF3蛋白识别,招募真核细胞翻译起始因子eIF3,促进帽依赖性翻译[31,32]。而在应激条件下,5′UTR区的m6A作为m6A诱导的核糖体进入位点(m6A-induced ribosome engagement site,MIRES),促进mRNA进行帽非依赖性翻译,这种m6A介导的帽非依赖性翻译同样需要m6A“读码器”eIF3的识别[33]。另有研究表明,mRNA上的m6A可影响转录本与tRNAs的相互作用进而抑制翻译[34]。
图1 腺苷酸甲基化修饰结构示意图
RNA腺苷酸N位置的甲基化修饰通过m6A甲基转移酶装配,被m6A结合蛋白识别或被去甲基化酶移除。
m6A还参与哺乳动物多种病理生理学过程,包括胚胎发育[35]、神经发生[36]、昼夜节律[37]、应激反应[38]、肿瘤发生[24,39]和病毒感染[40]等。随着m6A甲基化组学分析的发展,m6A在肿瘤发生发展的相关机制研究取得了主要突破。RNA m6A甲基化水平改变影响细胞的增殖、分化与自我更新[41]。m6A是肿瘤代谢的重要调节因子,肿瘤代谢应激反应可导致异常的m6A甲基化,调节代谢重组相关的信号通路、转录因子和代谢酶[42]。目前已有多项研究发现,m6A修饰异常与多种癌症的发生发展相关,不同底物的m6A修饰会促进或抑制肿瘤的发展,具有促癌和抑癌的双重作用,是一把双刃剑[24]。机体对LINE-1的调控影响基因组稳定性,含有m6A修饰的LINE-1 mRNA具有宿主逃逸机制,被正向选择并表达,从而促进疾病的发生发展。研究发现,是口腔鳞状细胞癌(oral squamous cell carcinoma,OSCC)的原癌基因,其编码的HNRNPA2B1蛋白可能作为m6A“读码器”促进LINE-1 mRNA翻译,进而通过LINE-1/TGF-β1/Smad2/Slug信号通路靶向上皮细胞-间充质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition,EMT),促进肿瘤细胞增殖、迁移和侵袭[43]。这提示m6A修饰的LINE-1可能与多种癌症致病机制均相关,为癌症预防及治疗提供了新的思路。根据m6A修饰的不同位置,将其分为4个部分:具有转座活性的LINE-1 5′ UTR、位于宿主基因内含子区域和形成R-环的LINE-1的m6A修饰,以及LINE-1 DNA的6mA修饰(图2A)。近年来,研究人员发现m6A对LINE-1的整个复制周期均有调控作用,“编码器”对各阶段LINE-1进行m6A修饰,该修饰被“读码器”识别,或被“消码器”移除,影响LINE-1的转座活性及转录与翻译水平(图2B)。
最新的一项研究表明,LINE-1转录本是人类细胞中主要的m6A修饰RNA。与DNA和一些组蛋白甲基化的抑制作用相反,如组蛋白H3K9me3,RC-L1s的RNA m6A修饰可促进其表达与转座。m6A偏向于修饰年轻的LINE-1,这些LINE-1结构完整,并具有丰富的RRACH序列。除了帽依赖性翻译外,m6A还启动LINE-1 RNA帽非依赖性翻译。该研究发现,在LINE-1 5′ UTR第333位发生m6A获得性突变后,形成m6A共识别序列,使得第332位腺苷上发生m6A修饰,eIF3识别该修饰位点后,提高ORF1的翻译速率,刺激ORF2p合成,产生具有逆转录活性的LINE-1 核糖核蛋白RNP,促进LINE-1逆转录转座[44,45]。LINE-1的5′ UTR m6A修饰是其产生逆转录转座功能所必需的,只有具有完整5′ UTR,m6A修饰相关酶才可调控LINE-1的表达[46]。此外,m6A修饰可以改变RNA-蛋白相互作用或RNA二级结构,这可能影响LINE-1 ORF2p的酶活性[45]。目前已发现,m6A甲基化酶METTL3使LINE-1 m6A水平升高,促进其逆转座[45]。相反,m6A去甲基化酶ALKBH5使LINE-1 m6A水平降低,抑制其逆转座[45]。m6A甲基化酶METTL14和ZC3H13或其识别蛋白YTHDC1缺失将降低宿主中m6A标记的年轻LINE-1的水平[46]。虽然m6A修饰提高LINE-1 RNA的翻译效率,但不改变LINE-1 RNA在细胞内定位[45]。此外,m6A仅对年轻LINE-1的表达和逆转座活性有促进作用,在较老或低甲基化的LINE-1中有抑制作用,当m6A识别蛋白缺陷时,古老的LINE-1转座活性反而增加[46]。
基因组中多数LINE-1 5′ UTR区域缺失或突变,失去逆转座活性。研究发现,基因内含子中经m6A修饰后的无逆转座活性的LINE-1 (m6A-marked intronic LINE-1s,MILs)是一种新的调控元件,优先驻留在长基因中,作为转录“障碍”阻碍宿主基因的表达,但具体机制尚不清楚[46]。这些长基因在DNA损伤修复(DNA damage repair,DDR)等生理过程中发挥关键作用。研究发现,m6A识别蛋白SAFB/SAFB2复合体以m6A增强的方式结合RC-L1s和MILs RNA来抑制其表达[46]。此外,SAFB/SAFB2还可纠正MILs对重要宿主基因的转录阻断作用,以保护宿主基因的转录,但SAFB并不与m6A发生特异性结合,可能通过m6A改变局部RNA结构以实现RNA-RBP (RNA结合蛋白)相互作用(即“m6A开关”),形成的LINE-1 RNA高级结构允许更强的L1-SAFB结合[46]。MILs通过影响长基因转录,使m6A调节的L1-宿主相互作用在基因调控、基因组完整性、人类发育和疾病中发挥广泛作用[46,47]。
图2 m6A修饰对LINE-1的影响
A:LINE-1的结构。LINE-1由开放阅读框ORF0、ORF1、ORF2和非编码区5′UTR、3′UTR构成,5′UTR 有两个启动子,是双向的:正义启动子活性可转录 ORF1、ORF2,反义启动子(ASP)能够启动与LINE-1方向相反的转录物转录。B:m6A修饰酶影响LINE-1复制周期模式图。①LINE-1 DNA可能富集6mA甲基化修饰,抑制mRNA转录;
②LINE-1 mRNA与ORF1p、ORF2p结合生成LINE-1 RNP复合物,入核后进行“TPRT”生成cDNA,插入宿主基因组;
③在细胞质中,翻译起始因子eIF3与m6A特异性相互作用,提高翻译水平;
④METTL3、YTHDC1促进LINE-1逆转座,ALKBH5、SAFB/SAFB2抑制LINE-1逆转座;
⑤SAFB/SAFB2可纠正MILs对重要宿主基因的转录阻断。
R-环普遍存在于高转录基因中,并在重复序列中积累,其中包括逆转录转座子LINE-1[48]。LINE-1逆转录转座过程中,RNP剪切基因组DNA双链,形成由LINE-1 RNA:DNA杂交分子和未配对单链DNA组成的R-环,R环在细胞分裂S期达到顶峰,参与了从转录调控到DNA修复等诸多重要生物学过程[49]。Abakir等[50]发现,在人多能性干细胞(human pluripotent stem cells,hPSCs)RNA:DNA杂交体中有大量m6A修饰,m6A修饰存在于RNA:DNA杂交体的RNA链上,含有m6A的R环在细胞周期G2/M期积累,在G0/G1期耗尽。在正常生理条件下,R-环在基因启动子区和终止区富集,参与mRNA转录起始和终止,调控基因表达。当R-环没有被正常分解时,其积累会导致DNA损伤和/或复制叉停滞,破坏基因组的稳定性[51~53]。m6A修饰可调控R环的积累,不同的m6A结合蛋白识别R环,维持基因组的稳定性。目前已发现甲基转移酶METTL3、识别蛋白HNRNPA2B1、促进mRNA翻译的YTHDF1以及促进mRNA降解的YTHDF2均与富集R环的位点相互作用[50]。已有研究表明,YTHDF2可阻止含有m6A的LINE-1 RNA:DNA杂交体积累,有助于修复哺乳动物中R-环依赖性DNA损伤,维护基因组稳定性[50]。
DNAN-甲基化腺嘌呤(6mA)修饰在原核生物中广泛分布,而在哺乳动物细胞中丰度极低[54,55]。早期研究人员利用SMRT-ChIP在小鼠胚胎干细胞(mouse embryonic stem cells,mESCs)中发现6mA修饰,证明6mA修饰与LINE-1转座子的进化年龄呈负相关,在年轻、完整的LINE-1元件中强烈富集。与LINE-1 RNA的m6A甲基化沉积位置相似,6mA大多数富集在年轻全长LINE-1的5′ UTR和ORF1上。在6mA去甲基化酶ALKBH1缺陷的细胞中,DNA 6mA水平增加导致转录沉默。6mA修饰与LINE-1转座子及其邻近增强子和基因的表观遗传沉默相关,在胚胎干细胞分化过程中抵抗基因激活信号[56]。与其他常染色体相比,较年轻的全长LINE-1在X染色体上强烈富集,经6mA修饰后沉默位于X染色体上的基因[56,57]。不同于6mA在其他生物基因中的激活作用,它在哺乳动物进化中表现出表观遗传沉默的新作用。然而,该研究结果存在很大争议,其他研究者对真核生物中DNA 6mA的存在表示怀疑,认为已有方法受污染源的影响容易产生假阳性结果。故作者使用6mASCOPE方法对6mA定量去卷积,结果排除非特异性偏倚后,不支持HEK293中年轻LINE-1具有6mA富集特点[54]。但这项研究仍存在局限性,需要进一步优化检测方法。
LINE-1上修饰的m6A不仅调控其自身的复制过程,对其相邻基因的表观遗传调控、塑造基因组结构和维持基因组稳定性方面也具有广泛的作用。染色体相关调控RNA (chromat-in-associated regulatory RNAs,carRNAs)上的m6A修饰可以全局调控染色质状态和转录,依赖于METTL3甲基化的carRNAs包括启动子相关RNA、增强子RNA和重复序列RNA(如LINE-1)。carRNAs m6A修饰可以维持基因间区域染色质浓缩,而YTHDC1识别m6A后,通过核外泌体靶向(nuclear exosome targeting,NEXT)复合物促进carRNAs降解。m6A甲基化缺失导致染色质开放和转录本富集,这与活性组蛋白H3K4me3和H3K27ac修饰增加相关,后续招募表观遗传因子如组蛋白乙酰转移酶(EP-300)来维持开放的染色质构象和下游转录。此外,carRNAs中“重复序列RNA”在m6A高甲基化和转录下调之间表现出强相关性,其中LINE-1受影响最大,影响细胞自我更新和分化潜能[58~60]。
另有研究发现,识别蛋白YTHDC1通过多种机制参与逆转录转座子的调控和染色质修饰。在mESCs中,YTHDC1与m6A修饰的LINE-1转录本结合,募集组蛋白甲基转移酶SETDB1、TRIM28和核仁素(nucleolin,NCL),共同形成沉默复合物,促进H3K9me3的富集,沉默逆转录转座子[59,60]。此外,YTHDC1识别细胞核中LINE-1 RNA上的m6A,招募转录调控因子KAP1,并调控LINE1-NCL复合物的形成和KAP1在染色质上的募集,形成LINE1-NCL-KAP1复合物,抑制2细胞期(two-cell stage,2C)胚胎特异性转录的主要激活因子Dux,关闭2C基因表达程序。同时,LINE1-NCL-KAP1复合物可与核糖体DNA(rDNA)结合,促进rRNA合成和mESCs自我更新[59,61]。KAP1在LINE-1上的富集同样也促进H3K9me3沉积,导致在mESCs和内细胞团(ICM)细胞中组蛋白修饰位点的转录沉默,降低染色质开放状态,有助于识别mESCs并促进胚胎发育,调节mESCs从2C样状态退出[62]。另一项研究发现,在mESCs中发现肥胖蛋白FTO是LINE-1 m6A去甲基化酶,促进LINE-1相邻基因位点的染色质开放。FTO与LINE-1 RNA和LINE-1 RNA-DNA相互作用的消失导致染色质浓缩、抑制性组蛋白标记富集,顺式调控相邻基因,降低相邻基因表达。有趣的是,与YTHDC1作用相反,FTO敲除后,LINE-1 RNA反式调节不相邻的2C基因,使2C基因去抑制,导致类似2C状态发生和mESCs状态丢失,使得多功能性基因的表达减少,细胞分化和自我更新受损,因此FTO-LINE-1轴对于胚胎发育是必不可少的[63,64]。
m6A修饰对LINE-1的调控机制目前正在深入研究中,一些问题仍需要进一步探究阐述,如LINE-1 RNA上的m6A被YTHDC1识别后促进抑制性组蛋白富集,抑制基因表达。但另有研究发现,m6A“读码器”YTHDC1协同转录使组蛋白H3K9me2去甲基化,促进基因表达[65]。多种表观遗传信号共同调节基因的表达,故仍需进一步探究LINE-1不同表观转录组修饰间的相互影响,以及与染色质修饰的相互作用关系。此外,LINE-1 DNA 6mA是否具有显著性富集特点也有待进一步探讨。若LINE-1 DNA 上6mA修饰富集且抑制其活性,而LINE-1 RNA m6A修饰促进其转座,那么两者是否在发育或疾病中相互干扰,以及如何介导LINE-1活性或宿主基因表达,是未来研究的重要内容。此外,LINE-1 m6A修饰调控组蛋白修饰,阻止染色质开放状态及相邻基因的表达。但由不同m6A相关酶介导调控的2C基因表达作用相反,出现这种差异是由于m6A调控相关蛋白具有特异性还是其他调控系统参与其中仍不可知。另外,值得注意的是,m6A对不同的逆转录转座子家族具有截然相反的影响:YTHDC1识别某些TEs上m6A修饰后破坏其稳定性,如IAPs[60];
m6A通过招募YTHDF家族缩短IAP mRNA半衰期[66]。这表明在TEs可能发生了额外的依赖于m6A的调控,如依赖于其他m6A甲基转移酶(METTL5、METTL16和ZCCHC4)或识别结合蛋白的活性,这些蛋白可以通过翻译后修饰或与其他分子相互作用进行调控[60]。随着高通量测序等新技术的发展,研究人员对m6A的研究有望发现新的生物调节系统,LINE-1的m6A修饰也有望成为未来疾病治疗与诊断的新靶点。
在肿瘤疾病研究方面,LINE-1可作为诊断癌症的生物标志物和潜在的治疗靶点[67]。其中,LINE-1 DNA或组蛋白的大量低甲基化,被认为是大多数恶性转化的标志,是一种很有前途的癌症发展的候选生物标志物[8]。而LINE-1虽通常被认为具有促癌功能,但在急性髓系粒细胞白血病(AML)中发挥抑癌作用[68]。这是宿主不同调控机制的作用结果。LINE-1 m6A甲基化修饰研究的突破性进展或许将有助于解开LINE-1相关疾病研究的许多未解之谜。
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N-adenosine methylation and the regulatory mechanism on LINE-1
Ao Zhang, Shan Cen, Xiaoyu Li
Long interspersed elements-1(LINE-1) is the only autonomous transposon in human genome,and its retrotransposition results in change of cellular genome structure and function, leading occurrence of various severe diseases. As a central key intermediated component during life cycle of LINE-1 retrotransposition, the host modification of LINE-1 mRNA affects the LINE-1 transposition directly.N-adenosine methylation(m6A), the most abundant epigenetic modification on eukaryotic RNA, is dynamically reversible. m6A modification is also found on LINE-1 mRNA, and it participants regulation of the whole LINE-1 replication cycle, with affecting LINE-1 retrotransposition as well as its adjacent genes expression, followed by influencing genomic stability, cellular self-renewal, and differentiation potential, which plays important roles in human development and diseases. In this review, we summarize the research progress in LINE-1 m6A modification, including its modification positions, patterns and related mechanisms, hoping to provide a new sight on the mechanism research and treatment of related diseases.
m6A modification; retrotransposon; LINE-1; genome; genome stability
2023-11-10;
2023-12-28;
2024-01-19
国家自然科学基金面上项目(编号:31870164)资助[Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.31870164)]
张傲,硕士研究生,专业方向:LINE-1与肿瘤维持机制的研究。E-mail: za1632649341@163.com
岑山,博士,研究员,研究方向:病毒学。E-mail: shancen@hotmail.com
李晓宇,博士,研究员,研究方向:病毒学。E-mail: xiaoyulik@hotmail.com
10.16288/j.yczz.23-248
(责任编委: 宋旭)
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